The process entails establishing a connection from a macOS-based pc to a shared useful resource situated on a community, resembling a server or one other pc. This enables customers to entry and work together with information and folders saved on the community as in the event that they had been saved domestically on their machine. For instance, an worker would possibly connect with an organization’s file server to entry shared paperwork or mission information instantly from their Finder window.
Establishing a connection to shared sources affords a number of benefits, together with centralized information storage, simplified file sharing and collaboration amongst customers, and improved information backup and safety protocols. Traditionally, this sort of connectivity has been a cornerstone of community administration, offering a managed and environment friendly methodology for distributing sources throughout a corporation, enhancing productiveness and simplifying administration of digital property.
This text will now discover the assorted strategies out there to realize community drive entry on macOS, the troubleshooting steps for frequent points, and finest practices for sustaining a secure and safe connection.
1. SMB Protocol
Server Message Block (SMB) is the foundational community file sharing protocol upon which fashionable macOS programs rely to entry shared sources. The flexibility to attach a macOS system to a community share basically is determined by the implementation and proper configuration of SMB. When a consumer initiates a community connection on macOS to a Home windows server or Community Connected Storage (NAS) system, macOS leverages the SMB protocol to barter the connection, authenticate the consumer, and facilitate file switch. And not using a correctly functioning SMB implementation on each the macOS shopper and the server, establishing a secure and practical community drive connection is just not attainable. For instance, a corporation could use a central Home windows file server. macOS purchasers can solely entry the shared folders on this server if SMB is enabled and configured appropriately on the server and the macOS shopper.
The sensible significance of understanding the connection between SMB and establishing community connections lies in troubleshooting connectivity points. For instance, if a macOS consumer experiences persistent failures when making an attempt to connect with a shared folder, verifying the SMB model compatibility between the macOS system and the server is a vital first step. Equally, verifying the SMB settings, resembling SMB signing necessities and encryption configurations, can resolve connection issues. Moreover, the continuing improvement and evolution of the SMB protocol, with newer variations providing enhanced efficiency and security measures, necessitates steady monitoring and potential changes to configurations to take care of optimum community file sharing capabilities on macOS. In essence, a macOS system will solely efficiently create the digital native mount level when SMB features accurately.
In abstract, the SMB protocol serves because the important communication medium for macOS programs to entry shared community sources. Its correct perform and configuration are stipulations for profitable community drive connectivity. Understanding this elementary relationship permits directors to diagnose and resolve connection points, optimize community efficiency, and make sure the safety of shared information. Ignoring the significance of SMB protocol in establishing macOS connections can result in constant connection failures, sluggish efficiency, and safety vulnerabilities.
2. AFP Deprecation
Apple Submitting Protocol (AFP) was a proprietary community protocol utilized by macOS for file sharing. Its deprecation signifies a important shift in how macOS interacts with community sources. Previous to its removing, AFP was a standard methodology for connecting macOS programs to file servers. The choice to deprecate AFP stemmed from a number of elements, together with the rising prevalence of Server Message Block (SMB) as a cross-platform customary and the inherent safety limitations of AFP in comparison with extra fashionable protocols. Consequently, the method of creating community connections on macOS shifted to primarily utilizing SMB.
The sensible implication of AFP deprecation is that directors and customers should now depend on SMB to attach macOS programs to community shares. This entails guaranteeing SMB is correctly configured on each the macOS shopper and the server. Organizations that beforehand relied on AFP for file sharing should migrate their configurations to SMB to take care of community connectivity. For instance, a small enterprise that traditionally used an AFP-based file server would want to reconfigure their server to help SMB and replace the connection settings on their macOS computer systems to make use of SMB as an alternative of AFP. Failure to take action would end in an lack of ability to entry shared information.
In abstract, AFP deprecation necessitates a transition to SMB for community file sharing on macOS. This transformation requires cautious planning and configuration to make sure seamless connectivity and information entry. Understanding the explanations behind AFP’s obsolescence and embracing SMB is crucial for sustaining a practical and safe community surroundings inside macOS.
3. Finder Integration
Finder integration refers back to the seamless incorporation of community drive connectivity options instantly inside macOS’s Finder, the default file administration software. This integration simplifies the method of accessing community sources, making it intuitive and user-friendly. The extent and high quality of this integration considerably influence the general consumer expertise when connecting to and dealing with shared community information and folders.
-
Graphical Consumer Interface (GUI) Entry
Finder affords a graphical interface for looking out there community shares and initiating connections. Customers can find shared servers and folders inside the Finder sidebar or by way of the “Go” menu. This direct accessibility eliminates the necessity for command-line interplay or separate functions, streamlining the connection course of. As an illustration, a consumer can simply navigate to an organization’s file server from the Finder sidebar to entry mission paperwork, mirroring the expertise of looking native information.
-
Mount Level Visibility
As soon as a community drive is efficiently linked, it seems as a mounted quantity inside Finder, just like a neighborhood onerous drive or USB drive. This visibility permits customers to work together with information on the community drive utilizing the identical drag-and-drop, copy-paste, and file administration strategies they use for native information. For instance, after connecting to a community share, a consumer can drag a doc from their desktop instantly onto the mounted community drive icon in Finder to put it aside to the shared location.
-
Connection Persistence and Administration
Finder integration typically consists of options for managing persistent connections. Customers can configure community drives to mechanically mount upon login, guaranteeing constant entry to shared sources. Moreover, Finder offers choices for disconnecting from community drives and managing saved credentials. This enables customers to take care of secure connections and management entry to delicate community information. As an illustration, an worker can configure their macOS system to mechanically reconnect to the corporate file server every morning after they log in, guaranteeing instant entry to their work information.
-
Highlight Indexing Limitations
Whereas Finder offers a visible and intuitive entry to community drives, the Highlight search performance does not constantly index the contents of community drives. The flexibility to index community drives utilizing Highlight might significantly enhance the community looking out pace. This characteristic is usually out there solely via third-party apps, since Finder’s integration solely offers primary options.
The options associated to Finder play a key function within the usefulness of mapping community drives on macOS. Customers can enhance the usability of the software by understanding these options. Understanding the character and extent of this integration is essential for optimizing community drive utilization and guaranteeing a seamless consumer expertise.
4. Command Line Mounting
Command line mounting affords another methodology for establishing community drive connections on macOS, diverging from the graphical Finder interface. This method offers granular management over the connection course of, enabling superior configurations and automation capabilities.
-
Mount Utility
The `mount` utility, accessible via the Terminal software, serves as the first software for command line community drive connections. It permits directors and superior customers to manually specify the community protocol (e.g., SMB), server handle, share identify, and consumer credentials. The command `mount -t smbfs //consumer:password@server/share /Volumes/MountPoint` exemplifies the method, the place the protocol, credentials, server/share path, and desired mount level are explicitly outlined. As an illustration, an IT skilled would possibly use this to create a constant mount level for a shared useful resource throughout a number of machines.
-
Automation by way of Scripts
Command line mounting facilitates the creation of scripts to automate community drive connections. This functionality is especially helpful in enterprise environments the place quite a few programs require constant entry to shared sources. A script may very well be configured to mechanically mount community drives upon system startup or consumer login, streamlining the connection course of and guaranteeing steady entry to shared information. A programs administrator, for instance, might create a bash script that mechanically mounts a particular community drive for all customers in a division upon login. The script could be executed as a part of the login course of, seamlessly establishing the connection with out requiring consumer intervention.
-
Superior Configuration Choices
The command line interface exposes superior configuration choices not available via the Finder GUI. These choices embody specifying particular SMB variations, setting file permissions, and configuring superior community settings. This stage of management is helpful in complicated community environments the place fine-tuning connection parameters is critical to make sure compatibility and optimize efficiency. As an illustration, an administrator would possibly use command line choices to pressure a macOS system to make use of a particular SMB dialect when connecting to a legacy file server that doesn’t absolutely help newer SMB variations, thus guaranteeing a profitable connection.
-
Troubleshooting and Analysis
The command line offers helpful instruments for diagnosing community connection points. Error messages and verbose output from the `mount` command can present detailed details about connection failures, authentication issues, or community configuration points. This enables directors to pinpoint the basis reason behind connectivity issues and implement focused options. For instance, when a consumer stories an lack of ability to connect with a community share, the system administrator might use the `mount` command with the `-v` (verbose) flag to show detailed connection data and determine any potential points, resembling incorrect server handle or authentication failures.
In abstract, command line mounting affords a versatile and highly effective various to the Finder interface for establishing community drive connections on macOS. Its automation capabilities, superior configuration choices, and troubleshooting instruments make it a vital useful resource for directors and superior customers managing community connectivity in complicated environments. The potential to automate connections by way of shell script makes it helpful in environments with strict management necessities.
5. Credentials Administration
Credentials administration is an indispensable facet of creating and sustaining community drive connections on macOS. Safe entry to shared sources necessitates using usernames and passwords, or different authentication strategies. The way through which these credentials are managed instantly impacts the safety, comfort, and reliability of community drive entry.
-
Keychain Integration
macOS integrates a keychain system for securely storing usernames and passwords. When a consumer connects to a community drive, macOS can immediate to save lots of the credentials within the keychain. This allows computerized reconnection to the community drive upon subsequent logins with out requiring the consumer to re-enter their credentials. In an enterprise setting, an IT administrator would possibly mandate using the keychain for storing community credentials to make sure customers don’t retailer passwords in plain textual content or use weak passwords. Compromising the keychain, nonetheless, would expose all saved community credentials, underscoring the significance of securing the keychain itself.
-
Authentication Protocols
The selection of authentication protocol impacts how credentials are exchanged and verified. SMB, as an illustration, helps varied authentication strategies, together with NTLM and Kerberos. Kerberos, with its reliance on ticket-granting servers, affords stronger safety in comparison with NTLM. Configuring macOS to make use of Kerberos authentication with Lively Listing enhances the safety of community drive connections. Organizations coping with delicate information ought to prioritize using stronger authentication protocols and disable weaker protocols like NTLM to mitigate the chance of credential compromise.
-
Credential Immediate Conduct
The frequency and nature of credential prompts influence consumer expertise. Frequent prompts could be disruptive, whereas rare prompts could point out a scarcity of safety consciousness. macOS permits configuring the conduct of credential prompts, resembling prompting for credentials solely when crucial or mechanically utilizing saved credentials from the keychain. A company would possibly implement a coverage that requires customers to re-authenticate to community drives after a interval of inactivity to stability safety and value.
-
Multi-Issue Authentication (MFA)
Implementing multi-factor authentication provides an additional layer of safety to community drive connections. MFA requires customers to offer two or extra verification elements, resembling a password and a one-time code from a cell app. This considerably reduces the chance of unauthorized entry, even when the consumer’s password is compromised. For instance, an organization coping with delicate monetary information might require workers to make use of MFA when accessing community drives containing monetary data, thereby offering an extra layer of protection in opposition to information breaches.
Correct credentials administration is essential for safe and environment friendly community drive entry on macOS. The usage of keychain integration, collection of sturdy authentication protocols, configuration of acceptable credential immediate conduct, and implementation of multi-factor authentication are all important elements of a sturdy credentials administration technique. Ignoring these facets can result in safety vulnerabilities and hinder the usability of community drive connections.
6. Computerized Mounting
Computerized mounting, inside the context of macOS community drive connections, represents the automated re-establishment of a community drive connection upon consumer login or system startup. This eliminates the necessity for guide intervention to re-establish the connection every time a consumer accesses their macOS system. When correctly configured, computerized mounting streamlines workflow and ensures constant entry to shared community sources. The absence of computerized mounting necessitates guide re-establishment of the connection, doubtlessly interrupting workflow and hindering productiveness. An instance of its sensible software is in a company surroundings the place workers require fixed entry to a shared file server. Computerized mounting ensures these customers have instant entry to crucial information upon system login with out requiring any technical data or guide configuration steps.
The implementation of computerized mounting usually entails configuring the community drive connection inside macOS system preferences or using startup scripts. The system shops the mandatory credentials and connection parameters, permitting macOS to mechanically provoke the connection course of through the boot sequence or consumer login. Nevertheless, challenges can come up if the community is unavailable on the time macOS makes an attempt to mount the community drive mechanically. This can lead to connection errors or a delay in entry. In such instances, implementing error dealing with mechanisms or using community hyperlink detection can enhance the reliability of computerized mounting. Moreover, adjustments to community configurations, resembling IP handle modifications or server identify adjustments, necessitate updating the saved connection parameters to take care of performance.
In conclusion, computerized mounting is a significant factor of the consumer expertise related to macOS community drive connections. It enhances productiveness by offering seamless entry to shared sources with out guide intervention. Profitable implementation requires cautious configuration, consideration of community reliability, and mechanisms to deal with potential connection errors. Understanding the advantages and challenges related to computerized mounting is essential for optimizing community useful resource accessibility on macOS.
7. Permissions Configuration
Permissions configuration types a important layer of safety and entry management when establishing community drive entry on macOS. The way through which permissions are set instantly dictates who can entry, modify, or delete information and folders saved on the community share. Improperly configured permissions can result in information breaches, unauthorized entry, and information loss. Due to this fact, a radical understanding of permission administration is crucial for sustaining a safe and practical community surroundings when mapping community drives on macOS.
-
File System Permissions (ACLs)
Entry Management Lists (ACLs) outline granular permissions for particular person information and folders on the community share. These permissions specify which customers or teams have learn, write, or execute entry. For instance, a folder containing delicate monetary paperwork could also be configured with ACLs that solely grant entry to members of the finance division. Incorrect ACLs can lead to unauthorized workers having access to confidential data or reliable customers being denied entry to crucial information. When mapping a community drive on macOS, it’s important to make sure the consumer’s macOS account has the suitable permissions outlined within the file system ACLs to entry the specified sources.
-
Share Permissions
Share permissions govern the entry rights granted to customers connecting to the community share itself. These permissions act as the primary line of protection, figuring out who may even connect with the shared folder. Share permissions are sometimes configured on the server stage and apply to all customers connecting to the share. As an illustration, a shared folder is perhaps configured with “read-only” share permissions for the “Everybody” group and “learn/write” permissions for the “Directors” group. On macOS, when a consumer makes an attempt to connect with a mapped community drive, their entry is first evaluated in opposition to these share permissions. If the consumer lacks the mandatory permissions to connect with the share, the connection can be denied, whatever the file system ACLs.
-
macOS Particular Issues
macOS introduces particular nuances to permission administration when mapping community drives. The working system’s dealing with of file metadata and useful resource forks can have an effect on how permissions are interpreted and utilized. As an illustration, prolonged attributes, generally used on macOS for storing file metadata, is probably not absolutely supported by all community file programs. This will result in sudden permission points when sharing information between macOS and different working programs. When configuring community drive entry on macOS, you will need to think about these macOS-specific elements and guarantee compatibility with the underlying community file system. Correctly setting permissions entails acknowledging each share-level settings and inherent system behaviors.
-
Group-Primarily based Permissions
Using group-based permissions simplifies the administration of entry rights in bigger environments. As a substitute of assigning permissions to particular person customers, directors can create teams and assign permissions to these teams. Customers are then added to the suitable teams primarily based on their roles and obligations. For instance, a bunch named “ProjectTeamA” may very well be granted learn/write entry to a mission folder on the community share. Including a brand new crew member to the “ProjectTeamA” group mechanically grants them entry to the mission folder, streamlining the onboarding course of. Conversely, eradicating a consumer from the group revokes their entry, guaranteeing acceptable entry management. This technique eases the executive overhead of managing permissions and reduces the chance of assigning incorrect permissions to particular person customers, bettering total safety when connecting to a community share on macOS.
Successfully configuring permissions represents a elementary facet of safe community drive utilization on macOS. A holistic method that considers file system ACLs, share permissions, macOS-specific issues, and group-based permissions is crucial for stopping unauthorized entry and sustaining information integrity. Neglecting correct permissions configuration introduces vital safety dangers and undermines the advantages of community drive entry on macOS. For instance, configuring ACLs with out acceptable share permissions will make an administrator solely partially profitable.
8. Troubleshooting Connection
Troubleshooting connection points is a vital part of reliably using community drives on macOS. Issues through the “macos map community drive” course of can stem from numerous sources, starting from incorrect community settings to authentication failures or incompatibilities between the macOS shopper and the server. A profitable community drive implementation requires each proactive planning and the flexibility to diagnose and resolve connectivity issues successfully. Failure to deal with these issues ends in inconsistent entry to shared sources, thereby undermining the advantages of centralized file storage and collaboration. For instance, a standard state of affairs entails a consumer being unable to connect with a community drive because of an incorrect server handle. On this case, the troubleshooting course of would contain verifying the server handle and correcting it within the connection settings. One other frequent subject arises from incorrect username or password credentials, which might necessitate resetting the consumer’s password on the server or updating the saved credentials within the macOS keychain.
Efficient troubleshooting entails systematic investigation and the appliance of acceptable diagnostic instruments. macOS offers a number of utilities for diagnosing community connectivity issues, together with the `ping` command for verifying community reachability and the `traceroute` command for figuring out community bottlenecks. Moreover, inspecting system logs can reveal helpful details about connection makes an attempt and error messages. As an illustration, if a consumer experiences sluggish file switch speeds after connecting to a community drive, troubleshooting would possibly contain utilizing the `traceroute` command to determine potential community hops which might be inflicting latency. Equally, analyzing system logs might reveal SMB negotiation errors indicating a model incompatibility between the shopper and server. In an organizational surroundings, the flexibility to rapidly diagnose and resolve these points minimizes downtime and ensures uninterrupted entry to important enterprise sources.
In conclusion, the flexibility to troubleshoot connection issues is integral to a practical “macos map community drive” deployment. A mix of systematic investigation, using diagnostic instruments, and understanding potential causes of connection failures is critical for guaranteeing secure and dependable entry to shared community sources on macOS. Recognizing troubleshooting as a elementary facet of community drive administration enhances the general utility and safety of network-based file sharing, mitigating dangers of information entry disruptions and bettering end-user productiveness.
9. Safety Issues
Safety issues are paramount when establishing community drive connections on macOS. The method inherently entails accessing and transmitting information throughout a community, doubtlessly exposing delicate data to varied safety threats. Due to this fact, a complete understanding and implementation of safety measures are essential to guard information integrity and confidentiality when mapping community drives.
-
Knowledge Encryption
Encrypting information in transit is essential to stop eavesdropping and unauthorized entry to delicate data. Protocols like SMB3 present built-in encryption capabilities, guaranteeing information is protected whereas transmitted between the macOS shopper and the server. For instance, implementing SMB3 encryption for all community drive connections prevents attackers from intercepting and studying information transmitted over the community. Failure to implement encryption leaves delicate information susceptible to interception and compromise. Organizations coping with confidential information ought to prioritize enabling and implementing encryption on all community drive connections.
-
Authentication Protocols
The authentication protocol used to confirm consumer identification performs an important function in safety. Weak or outdated protocols like NTLM are prone to credential theft and must be prevented. Fashionable protocols like Kerberos supply stronger authentication mechanisms, decreasing the chance of unauthorized entry. As an illustration, configuring macOS to make use of Kerberos authentication with Lively Listing considerably enhances safety. Neglecting to make use of sturdy authentication protocols exposes the community to brute-force assaults and credential compromise, doubtlessly granting attackers entry to delicate information. Organizations should make sure that solely safe authentication protocols are enabled for community drive connections.
-
Entry Management Lists (ACLs)
Entry Management Lists (ACLs) outline granular permissions for information and folders on the community share, specifying which customers or teams have entry. Correctly configured ACLs limit entry to approved people, stopping unauthorized customers from accessing or modifying delicate information. For instance, ACLs can make sure that solely members of the finance division have entry to monetary data. Incorrectly configured ACLs can grant unauthorized entry to delicate information, resulting in information breaches or information corruption. Organizations should usually assessment and replace ACLs to make sure that entry is restricted to approved personnel.
-
Firewall Configuration
Firewalls act as a barrier between the macOS system and the exterior community, controlling community site visitors and blocking malicious connections. Correctly configuring the firewall to permit solely crucial site visitors to and from the community drive server reduces the assault floor. As an illustration, the firewall could be configured to dam all inbound connections to the macOS system apart from these originating from the community drive server. Failure to correctly configure the firewall exposes the macOS system to network-based assaults, resembling port scanning and denial-of-service assaults. Organizations should implement and preserve a well-configured firewall to guard macOS programs from network-based threats.
These safety issues are elementary to safe community drive utilization on macOS. Implementing encryption, using sturdy authentication protocols, correctly configuring ACLs, and using a firewall are important for shielding information and stopping unauthorized entry. A proactive and complete method to safety is essential for sustaining a safe and practical community surroundings when mapping community drives.
Ceaselessly Requested Questions Concerning Community Drive Connectivity on macOS
The next addresses frequent inquiries and misconceptions pertaining to community drive connectivity on macOS working programs.
Query 1: What’s the present advisable protocol for connecting to community shares on macOS?
Server Message Block (SMB) is the advisable protocol for community file sharing on macOS. Apple has deprecated Apple Submitting Protocol (AFP), and SMB affords cross-platform compatibility.
Query 2: How can a community drive be configured to mechanically mount upon system startup on macOS?
Computerized mounting could be configured by way of System Preferences -> Customers & Teams -> Login Gadgets. Community shares could be added to the checklist of things that mechanically open upon login.
Query 3: What steps must be taken if macOS fails to connect with a community drive?
Troubleshooting steps embody verifying community connectivity, confirming the server handle, guaranteeing appropriate username and password credentials, and checking SMB model compatibility.
Query 4: How are permissions managed for community drives linked to macOS?
Permissions are managed via Entry Management Lists (ACLs) on the server. Make sure the macOS consumer account has acceptable learn, write, or execute permissions.
Query 5: What safety measures must be carried out when connecting to a community drive on macOS?
Safety measures embody enabling SMB3 encryption, utilizing sturdy authentication protocols like Kerberos, configuring a firewall, and usually reviewing Entry Management Lists (ACLs).
Query 6: Is it attainable to connect with a community drive by way of the command line on macOS?
Sure, community drives could be linked by way of the command line utilizing the `mount` utility. This methodology affords superior configuration choices and automation capabilities.
In abstract, understanding these parts contributes to a extra environment friendly and safe community drive expertise on macOS.
The following part will present a concise guidelines for implementing and managing community drive connections.
Important Suggestions for Optimizing macOS Community Drive Connections
The next tips present actionable steps for guaranteeing a sturdy and safe surroundings for connecting to community drives on macOS. Adherence to those suggestions minimizes connection points and maximizes information safety.
Tip 1: Prioritize SMB3 Encryption. Enforcement of SMB3 encryption ensures information safety throughout transmission. Implement this protocol on each the macOS shopper and the server to mitigate the chance of eavesdropping and unauthorized entry.
Tip 2: Make the most of Kerberos Authentication. Implement Kerberos for enhanced safety. Keep away from reliance on weaker authentication protocols like NTLM. Integrating Kerberos with Lively Listing offers a extra strong authentication mechanism, minimizing vulnerability to credential theft.
Tip 3: Recurrently Evaluate Entry Management Lists (ACLs). Conduct routine audits of ACLs on shared folders. Make sure that entry is restricted to approved personnel solely. Revoke pointless permissions to restrict the potential for information breaches.
Tip 4: Keep a Correctly Configured Firewall. Configure the macOS firewall to limit inbound and outbound community site visitors. Permit solely crucial connections to the community drive server. Block unsolicited community entry to scale back the assault floor.
Tip 5: Automate Reference to Warning. Whereas computerized mounting streamlines workflow, train warning when storing credentials. Securely retailer credentials within the macOS Keychain, and think about implementing multi-factor authentication for an added layer of safety.
Tip 6: Monitor Community Drive Efficiency. Recurrently monitor community drive efficiency for bottlenecks and latency points. Make the most of macOS diagnostic instruments like `traceroute` to determine community hops that could be inflicting efficiency degradation.
Tip 7: Doc Community Configurations. Keep detailed documentation of community drive configurations, together with server addresses, share names, and consumer credentials. This documentation assists in troubleshooting and ensures consistency throughout a number of macOS programs.
Implementing these methods will contribute to a safer and streamlined method to accessing and managing shared sources.
The following part will current a succinct conclusion summarizing the important thing facets of implementing and managing community drives inside the macOS working system.
Conclusion
This exploration of “macos map community drive” has detailed important facets from protocol choice and automation strategies to safety measures and troubleshooting approaches. Understanding the nuances of SMB, AFP deprecation, Finder integration, and command-line mounting is important for profitable community drive implementation. Correct credentials administration and strategic permission configurations, mixed with strong safety protocols, represent a secure and guarded community surroundings.
The way forward for community file sharing necessitates vigilance and adaptation to evolving safety landscapes. Steady monitoring, constant updates, and diligent adherence to safety finest practices stay paramount to make sure uninterrupted entry to shared sources and the safety of delicate information. Prioritizing these facets safeguards community integrity and facilitates efficient collaboration inside the macOS ecosystem.
